Artificial intelligence use, creative thinking disposition, and metacognitive awareness among EFL learners: a structural equation modelling approach

Artificial intelligence is increasingly embedded in English as a foreign language (EFL) learning, yet its cognitive implications depend on how learners engage with it rather than on its use alone. This study examined the structural relationships among differentiated patterns of AI use, creative thinking disposition, and metacognitive awareness among undergraduate EFL learners. Using a quantitative cross-sectional correlational design, data were collected from 713 learners and analysed through structural equation modelling.

AI use was conceptualised as cognitive-support use, creative-extension use, reproductive or substitutive use, and ethical and critical awareness. The findings indicate that the use of cognitive-support and creative-extension AI is positively associated with both creative thinking disposition and metacognitive awareness. In contrast, reproductive or substitutive use is negatively associated with these outcomes.

Creative thinking disposition demonstrates a strong positive relationship with metacognitive awareness and mediates the effects of constructive AI use on regulatory awareness. Ethical and critical engagement with AI moderates these relationships, strengthening the positive associations between constructive AI use and both creative and metacognitive outcomes. The results clarify that the cognitive value of AI in EFL learning is shaped by learner agency, reflective judgement, and responsibility for meaning-making.

The study advances a cognitively grounded account of AI-mediated EFL learning and provides empirical support for differentiating AI engagement patterns in both research and instructional design. The authors extend their appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific Research at Northern Border University, Arar, KSA for funding this research work through the project number “NBU-FPEJ-2026-2905-01”. Humanities and Social Research Center, Northern Border University, Arar, 73213, Saudi Arabia English Language Department, College of Arts, University of Ha’il, Ha’il, Saudi Arabia Correspondence to Mohammad Hamad Al-khresheh.

The authors declare no competing interests. No AI tools were used for research design, data collection, or data analysis. AI assistance was used exclusively for language refinement and clarity, in line with Springer Nature’s publishing ethics and transparency guidelines.

This study was conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and national research committees and with the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments. Ethical approval was obtained from the Research Ethics Committee at the University of Hail (approval no. H-2026-004) on 5 January 2026.